3.2.3Active indicatorAir pollution and health impacts driven by international trade
3.1Energy use, energy generation, and health
3.2Air quality and health co-benefits
3.3Food, agriculture, and health co-benefits
3.5Health-care Sector Emissions
Indicator 3.2.3 · Mitigation
Air pollution and health impacts driven by international trade
The production of goods and services can expose people to health-harming PM₂.₅ air pollution, while also generating greenhouse gas emissions. Through global trade, these health and climate burdens can fall in countries where goods are produced rather than where they are ultimately consumed. Comparing production- and consumption-based emissions helps show how pollution is distributed across countries through trade. This indicator tracks the PM₂.₅ and greenhouse gas emissions associated with countries’ production and consumption of goods and services.
Headline finding
In 2024, 51.3% of PM₂.₅-related deaths occurring in Low-HDI countries were associated with the consumption of goods and services in High- and Very High-HDI countries.
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Figure 1
PM₂.₅-related premature deaths linked to international trade
Percentage share of PM₂.₅-related premature deaths associated with the production and consumption of goods and services in 2024, by Human Development Index (HDI) group and Lancet Countdown region. Receptor-based premature deaths attribute deaths to where the health impacts physically occur; production-based premature deaths attribute deaths to where the pollution-producing goods and services are produced; and consumption-based premature deaths attribute deaths to the regions whose consumption of goods and services drives the associated pollution and health impacts.
Only major economies are modelled individually; the rest of each region is aggregated. Small Island Developing States are outside this model.
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Figure 2
PM₂.₅-related premature deaths linked to international trade
Transfer of PM2.5-induced premature deaths through trade and atmospheric transportation for different HDI country groups and Lancet Countdown regions in 2024. Consumption-based deaths are attributed to the region whose consumption of goods and services drove the PM2.5 emissions. Production-based deaths are attributed to the region where PM2.5 emissions physically occurred. Receptor-based deaths are attributed to the region where people were exposed to the pollution and the mortality actually occurred.
Only major economies are modelled individually; the rest of each region is aggregated. Small Island Developing States are outside this model.
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About this indicator
Description
This indicator uses an environmentally-extended multi-region input-output (EEMRIO) model, linked to atmospheric transport modelling, to quantify countries’ consumption-based, production-based, and receptor-based contributions to PM2.5-related premature mortality. The EEMRIO analysis reflects production and consumption structures and interdependencies between economic sectors across regions, estimating PM2.5-related deaths embodied in international trade and atmospheric transport, and calculating national PM2.5 mortality from the consumption perspective.
Authors
Dr Kehan He, Prof Zhifu Mi, Dr Fabian Wagner, Prof Richard Wood
Data downloads
Caveats
GAINS process-related exposures are only distributed across MRIO sectors that can be clearly identified. Energy-related exposures are allocated on the basis of total fuel use rather than fuel-specific data. Simplifications and assumptions made during the death inventory disaggregation stage, including the coupling of trade and atmospheric transport pathways, may bring uncertainties into the results.
Data sources
- EXIOBASE 3: Developing a Time Series of Detailed Environmentally Extended Multi-Regional Input-Output Tables, 2018. stadler, K et al.
- Global Carbon Project 2025, 2025. Friedlingstein, P et al.
- World Bank Open Data database, 2022. World Bank Group.
- Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS), 2021. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis.
- Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR) database, 2022. European Commission.
- IEA fuel & activities: For compilation of updated emission inventories.